Library & Information Science, Course 233: School Library Media Centers.
Dr. David Loertscher
Spring, 1999

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1700s--mid-1800s : Children are taught to read through memorization of the alphabet, practice with sound-letter correspondences, and spelling lists. The prevailing texts used for teaching reading are the Bible and political essays.

Mid-1800s : Inspired by Jeffersonian democratic ideas, some educators attack phonics and urge a meaning-based approach to learning to read.

Late 1800s : All-purpose reading materials are replaced by graded readers designed to match a child's age and ability.

1930s--1970s : A look-say or whole word (not whole language) approach, exemplified by the "Dick and Jane" reading series, dominates reading instruction in schools. Instruction emphasizes comprehension.

1957 : Rudolph Flesch's best-selling book, Why Johnny Can't Read , urges a return to phonics instruction. In a sharp political and emotional attack, Flesch accuses the whole word approach "of gradually destroying democracy."

1967 : Jeanne Chall's book, Learning to Read: The Great Debate , is published. Chall continues to advocate for direct instruction in phonics.

Early 1970s : The Initial Teaching Alphabet (ITA), a phonetic alphabet, is used to teach reading in Great Britain and some school systems in North America.

1970s : The whole language philosophy, which has diverse intellectual roots in Australia, Europe, and North America, emerges. The philosophy promotes a meaning-based approach to learning to read.

Mid-1970s : Research on reading shifts from a focus on texts to an emphasis on how readers construct meaning.

1984 : The National academy of Education releases Becoming a Nation of Readers , a report on the status of research in reading education.

1988 : Researcher Marie Carbo reanalyzes Chall's earlier research on reading, calling some of the data analysis into question. A lengthy research debate ensues.

1990 : Beginning to Read , a landmark study by psychologist Marilyn Adams, analyzes the role of phonics in beginning reading programs. The book fuels controversy over the nature of reading instruction.

1994 : Low reading scores on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in California lead to a pro-phonics backlash against the whole language movement.

Mid-1990s : Studies released by the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) of the National Institutes of Health indicate that children with reading difficulties benefit from explicit phonics instruction. Researchers believe the findings support phonics instruction for all students.

1995 : California adopts two statues known as the "ABC" laws, which require, in part, that the state board of education adopt instructional materials, including "systematic, explicit phonics, spelling, and basic computational skills."

1996 : President Clinton launches the America Reads Challenge, a program to address national literacy concerns. Legislation corresponding with the initiative identifies reading instruction as a "local decision."

1997 : The Clinton administration proposes a voluntary national test of 4th grade reading ability.

1997 : Several California school systems are charged with violating the ABC statutes by using state funds to purchase nonapproved whole language instructional materials.

Late 1997 : A study on the prevention of early reading difficulties, conducted by the National Academy of Sciences, is slated for release.

1997 : Reading instruction continues to generate debate from local to national levels.

Source: ASCD Infobrief , Issue 10, September, 1997, pp. 4-5.

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